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Senior-subordinated structures are referred to as self-insuring structures because they rely on internally generated credit support to protect the investor from losses. Typically, senior-subordinated bonds employ a combination of excess spread, overcollateralization and subordination. Losses are absorbed in reverse priority through the capital structure, first by excess spread, then overcollateralization (OC) and finally via the principal writedown of the subordinated bonds.

As mentioned previously, collateral may be either all fixed or adjustable rate or consist of both fixed and adjustable rate. Credit enhancement structures may be designed to accommodate the different collateral groups. These structures are referred to as I-, H-, or Y-structures.

Type I credit enhancement structures accommodate a single collateral group of either fixed rate, adjustable rate, or mixed loan types.

Both the H and Y credit enhancement structures may be used with multiple collateral groups. The H-structure allows two collateral groups and two distinct subordinated bond groups.

The H-structure can be thought of as two distinct transactions, except that excess interest may be shared between collateral groups to maintain target OC levels and cross coverage of subordinate bonds for triple-A support. Because excess interest is shared between groups, the Hstructure is said to be cross collateralized.

For example, if Group 2’s excess interest is insufficient to cover losses and maintain target OC levels and Group 1 has sufficient excess interest to cover its losses and maintain excess interest, then Group 1’s excess interest may be used to bring Group 2’s OC to the target level.

The Y-structure also allows two distinct collateral groups. However, unlike the H-structure, the Y-structure employs a single subordination group to support both the Group 1 and the Group 2 senior tranches.

The following types of countries are most likely to be at risk (this is a selection of indicators):

• Countries with significant exports to crisis affected countries such as the USA and EU countries (either directly or indirectly). Mexico is a good example;
• Countries exporting products whose prices are affected or products with high income elasticities. Zambia would eventually be hit by lower copper prices, and the tourism sector in Caribbean and African countries will be hit;
• Countries dependent on remittances. With fewer bonuses, Indian workers in the city of London, for example, will have less to remit. There will be fewer migrants coming into the UK and other developed countries, where attitudes might harden and job opportunities become more scarce;
• Countries heavily dependent on FDI, portfolio and DFI finance to address their current account problems (e.g. South Africa cannot afford to reduce its interest rate, and it has already missed some important FDI deals);
• Countries with sophisticated stock markets and banking sectors with weakly regulated markets for securities;
• Countries with a high current account deficit with pressures on exchange rates and inflation rates. South Africa cannot afford to reduce interest rates as it needs to attract investment to address its current account deficit. India has seen a devaluation as well as high inflation. Import values in other countries have already weakened the current account;
• Countries with high government deficits. For example, India has a weak fiscal position which means that they cannot put schemes in place;
• Countries dependent on aid.